More than a billion people are now using artificial intelligence (AI) models regularly, for purposes ranging from work to advice about personal relationships. This trend began with the introduction of ChatGPT in November 2022, so in only three years, AI has gone from an obscure research topic in computer science to a daily tool. What makes the new AI so much more powerful than previous approaches?

The power of the new AI comes from three sources: mechanisms, causal networks, and emergent properties. Mechanisms are combinations of interconnected parts whose interactions lead to regular changes. Causal networks are systems of causes based on multiple mechanisms. Emergent properties are ones possessed by whole........

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