DISTRUST has long overshadowed diplomacy in relations between the United States and Venezuela.

What began as political disagreement gradually escalated into confrontation, shaped by oil interests, ideological rivalry, and competing visions of sovereignty. Over time, pressure replaced persuasion, turning a complex bilateral relationship into a cautionary example of how coercive foreign policy can deepen crises rather than resolve them.

Venezuela’s importance to Washington has never been primarily moral or ideological; it has been strategic. Home to the world’s largest proven oil reserves and located within what the United States has historically viewed as its sphere of influence, Venezuela occupies an uncomfortable position—economically significant yet politically defiant. This contradiction has defined US engagement for decades.

The decisive rupture came in 1998 with the election of Hugo Chávez. Rising amid public disillusionment........

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