Resilience is a word frequently used to describe the way Ukrainian society has responded to the war with Russia. It’s a term that can inspire sympathy and mobilise support. But it also risks overshadowing effects of war that require both domestic and international attention to enable Ukraine to withstand Russia’s invasion and manage long-term recovery.

The protracted conflict that started with Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014, continued with the war in Donbas and escalated into Russia’s full-scale invasion in 2022 has recently reached a new level of intensity through concerted Russian attacks on civilian targets. As a result, the effects of war at the level of individuals, communities and society at large are becoming ever more apparent.

Trauma is an unavoidable effect of war. Measuring the psychological effects of trauma in countries following war and conflict can be difficult. Obtaining a reliable picture of the situation in Ukraine – where, after four and a half years, there is no end to the conflict in sight – has proved even more challenging.

The KonKoop Trauma Study, which has involved researchers from King’s College London, the Kyiv School of Economics, George Washington University, University of Manchester and the UK veteran mental health charity Combat Stress is, as far as we are aware, the first representative survey of the civilian population. This survey, implemented by the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology, now provides a baseline measure of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD in Ukraine.

Standard PTSD often stems from a single event (such as a car crash or – as in Ukraine – a single violent episode connected to the ongoing conflict). It’s characterised by symptoms such as intrusive memories, nightmares, avoidance of reminders of the trauma and feeling constantly on alert.

CPTSD, meanwhile, typically results from repeated or very severe (also referred to as complex) trauma, or both. It displays the same symptoms as PTSD, but also involves persistent difficulties with self-worth, emotional regulation and relationships.

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