Long before the India Meteorological Department (IMD) issued its first forecast, farmers across India had developed their own ways of reading the skies.

These were not scattered folk beliefs or isolated traditions. In many regions, communities followed carefully observed systems that were refined over generations, recorded in texts, and passed down with remarkable consistency.

Today, as erratic monsoons continue to affect sowing seasons across the country, scientists and researchers are revisiting some of these traditional forecasting methods to understand the observations behind them and what they might still offer.

The Panchang and India's early astronomers

Some of India's oldest rain-prediction practices were closely linked to astronomy.

The Vedanga Jyotisha, one of the earliest known Indian texts on astronomy and timekeeping, laid the foundations for the Panchang — the Hindu almanac that is still consulted in many parts of the country today. By tracking the movements of the sun, moon, and stars, it helped communities anticipate seasonal changes, including rainfall patterns.

Centuries later, astronomer and scholar Varahamihira expanded these ideas further.

In his work Brihat Samhita, written in the 6th century CE, he described links between rainfall, celestial events, and atmospheric conditions. Some researchers believe that parts of these observations resemble concepts found in modern meteorology.

In many villages, a Gram Joshi or village astrologer would read out annual rainfall and crop predictions during the Hindu........

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